Rites of passage of the spartan youth

Rites of passage of the spartan youth The aim of this paper is to investigate the role of rites of passage in the socialization of Spartan youth. Methodologically, our discussion will be based upon: a) ancient literary sources, in particular Plutarch, Xenophon and Pausanias, b) interdisciplinary approaches initiated by modern historians and sociologists, and c) archaeological evidence. Discussion will begin with an overview of the ancient Spartan educational system and, in particular, an assessment of the evidence for the participation of both boys and girls in festivals. It is concluded that the Spartans incorporated a system of rites of passage in their educational programme with the aim to achieving the greatest levels of socialization of their youth, both boys and girls, the main reason for which was the important role that kinetic activities played in the context of rites of passage. Key words: Rites of passage, Spartan socialization, Sparta youth. Introduction The fascinatingly complex Spartan tradition holds an important place in western political thought, while the influence exercised by the images and the fables of Sparta are still potent today. Amongst the numerous Spartan institutions admiration is caused by the eminent Spartan training [agogi], an education system which was under the guardianship and control of the State, which according to many historians lay behind Spartas success in becoming the most militarily successful Greek city-state (Kennell, 1995, Birgalias, 1999, Ducat, 2006, Koliopouos, 2004). Education was obligatory and uniform for all Spartans, a uniformity that enforced an important institutional restriction on the display of wealth, in contrast to other Greek city-states, in particular Athens. Uniformity in training and education was regulated in ancient Sparta through a system of Rites of Passage, this being defined as a ritual marking a transitional phase in a persons status in the context of social hierarchies, values and beliefs. Rites of passage are ceremonies surrounding events such landmark events as childbirth, coming of age, menstruation, marriage and death and are characterised by three phases: separation, liminality, and re-incorporation. Socialization is defined as the adoption of the behaviour patterns of any given culture, describing the process by which people are integrated and incorporated into society. The more effective socialization is, the greater the internalization of prevailing social norms and values. Social pressure and social coercion are not expressed via imitation but via the internalization of collective consciousness, spontaneously and at the same time via the obligation of the individual to accept the social norm (Durkheim, 2000, p. 17). The result of this public way of life was that each citizen of Sparta should accept the intense pressure of public opinion so that he could cope with the models of behaviour established by the Spartan society. Methodology The first category of sources upon we rely is historical evidence even though it contains plenty of voids caused by successive alterations throughout centuries. Subsequently, we will turn upon literary testimonies. At first we shall focus on historiography that provides an overall frame, in order to comprehend an era and secondly on texts of political theory and philosophy that offer direct testimonies regarding historical facts and thirdly on poetry and rhetorical speeches, (Alkman, Tyrtaios, Aristophanes, Isocrates) that light up Spartan society of the archaic and classical times. Of importance is the information from Herodotus and Thucydides, even though they present the Spartan structure of their times as very primitive. Lakedaemonion Politeia of Kritias presents the first idealized picture of Sparta, an idea that appears later in Xenophons Lakedaemonion Politeia. An analysis of Spartan society was also attempted by Plato (Politeia, Nomoi) and Aristotle (Politica). A common feature in both is a critical attitude towards the idealization of Sparta and towards the theory that presents the decline of the city as a result of contemporary political erosion. Additionally, Plutarchs work lays emphasis on the moral aspect of the education. The Lycurgus work constitutes the foundation stone of the key-elements of modern stereotypes. Since the 19th century and the birth of the science of history, through Mullers, Grottes, Foustels de Coulange projects, whose notions form a basis for the interpretation of social-politic character of Spartan society or through those of the 20th century (Nilssons, Jeanmaires and Finelys works), the issue acquired specific scientific and historical dimension. During the 20th century these approaches were enriched by the conclusions of comparative ethnology thus allocating the origin of different educational institutions and processes to a common Mediterranean past. A second instructive opinion shifts interest into the political, social and economic objectives of education, placing emphasis on its aristocratic character and on the spirit of contest, on the socialization of the young person and on the value system that youngsters inherit. (Birgalias, 1999, p. 387). Useful tools are the essays of comparative ethnology regarding age-related classes, testing and ceremonies, in order to reconcile literature with the archaeological evidence. Vidal Naque points out that literary, philosophical and historical texts, mythical narrations and social practices, on one hand, and the world of rituals related to political decisions , should be bridged. In his work, St. Hodkinson aims at presenting an overall picture of a complicated society, such as the Spartan, approaching it through diverse levels and different social groups. Modern scientific studies concerning Sparta attempt to comprehend its internal structures. (Powell 1988, 1989, Richer 1999, Cartledge and Spawforth 1989, Hodkinson and Powell 1999, Kennell 1995, Brigalias 1999, Ducat, 2006). Agogi and Spartan festivals Agogi: education of young persons, both girls and boys in Sparta which included, in addition to writing, reading and music, many kinetic activities such as games, gymnastics, sports, dancing, hunting and military exercises. These actions, apart from their incorporation into the daily educational program, were performed during public feasts and religious ceremonies where participation of youngsters constituted part of their agogi and also in the context of the rites of passages where kinetic activities held a leading role. In Sparta the body and the mind were exercised at the same time depending on the age of children. This parallel exercise dictated a concrete system of values. Agogi had clearly a social character and the function accomplished by it, was of great importance. As members of an organized society, i  ¶ndividuals are affected by the cultural level of the group, accept the educative effect of the whole and shape their personalities. The State is who determines the object ives and the means of each educational system. Spartan education aimed at infusing common harmony and at cultivating we at the expense of I. Agogi aimed, above all, at the homogeneity of the citizens.  ¶ Spartan festivals especially, Gymnopaidiai, Karneia and Yakintheia were the arena for competition between different age groups, and involved the participation of the entire body politic (Hodkinson, 2004, p. 298). Participation in religious and public events was compulsory for all youth and formed an official part of their training. Performance played an important role in these rituals and the kinetic-physical skills of young Spartans were assessed by the entire body politic (Athenaeus, 14, 630d-631b, Polignac, 2007, p. 70-71, Ducat, 2006, p. 263-265, Panagea, 2001, p. 68-71). Gymnopaidiai involved the participation of the entire body of citizens. As far as we know, each group participated with four dances: trichoria, a childrens choir, one of adolescents and another of adult males. Many scholars consider the contests of the Gymnopaidiai as tests of endurance for the children and an integral part of their education (Pettersson, 1992, p. 45-47). In the festival of the Gymnopaidiai we also identify elements of incorporation, such as dance or nudity, elements that played an important role in the integration of youth into the body politic. The game of sphere was another ritual that was assessed and characterised as a transition from adolescence to adulthood (Kennell, 1995, p. 60, Ducat, 2006, p. 270-274). At the Karneia, the role of youth was different from that in other festivals: firstly, the age of the participants was from twenty on, a rather marginal physical age for educational purposes; secondly, young Spartans didnt only participate in the events but were also responsible for organising them, which clearly indicates that they were indeed the future of the community. The participation of young Spartans in dance, contests and games constituted a great occasion of communication. Social bonds were thus strengthened and children spent more time outside, collectively and creatively. In this way young people developed better personal relationships, lived in harmony, rhythm, beauty and practically enjoyed a better quality of life. The celebration of the Yakintheia the other important religious festival of the Spartans provided a great opportunity for girls to show off their marriageable skills. In all three important religious festivals the young members of the community played a significant role, not at an individual level, as in the rites of passage, but, along with other participants of different ages, in the context of the body politic where they displayed the achievements of their training and were accordingly evaluated. The process of socialization was integrated with religious activity from an early age, confirming the socio-religious aspect towards which the educational system was directed. (Ducat, 2006, p. 276-277, Panagea, 2001, p. 68-71, Sigalos, 1959, p. 214-216, Baltrusch, 2004, p. 98). Exercising the body was the main aim of education. Young Spartans took part in many contests whose principal aim was to increase the feeling of competition amongst them. These contests mainly took place during cultural religious events, thus connecting the agogi, the education, with religious devotion. Besides the games, though, music and dance played fundamental role in such events. Dance and music had public and pedagogic function within Spartan society. All citizens participated collectively, as members of their own classes, undertaking roles hierarchically structured. Moreover, Spartan feasts were based on the unselfish attendance of citizens. Joint participation in dance under the guidance of the chorodidaskalos (dance instructor) constituted a major feature to the political and social life of Sparta. Distinction in these contests and in dances, success, and physical capacity along with morals were prominent elements of social classification. These factors had primary significa nce to the rank that someone would occupy in the social conscience. Public praise or reproach, success or rejection of a boy or a girl had decisive impact in their social recognition and status. Discussion Commenting on the fact that Sparta had been described as a democratic state, Aristotle (Pol. 1294 b 21-7) recognized that it featured certain democratic characteristics shared among the rich and the poor classes, such as uniformity in education, food provision and dress, sectors of everyday life in which the possession of wealth did not provide any advantage to its holder (Hodkinson, 2004, p. 300-326). Spartan children spent most of their childhood from around the age of seven up to the age of eighteen- training with other children, rather than living with their families. The effect of this companionship and co-existence on children was the constant experience of an intense pressure to conform to the social rules and the generally accepted models of behaviour. (Koliopoulos, 2004, p. 101). In history of education Sparta certainly possesses a concrete place. Most characteristic of all Spartan products is its constitutional system with which, for the first time, the city-state appears as the force practicing agogi, taking into account the total significance of this term. (Jaeger, 1968 p. 11). Spartan education was considered as a procedure where youngsters should participate in a common system and simultaneously a selected team should be distinguished. The principal objective was their suitable upbringing so that they could cope with their role as citizens soldiers (Legras 2005, p. 38). P. Cartledge (2004 p. 32) mentions that agogi was a system of education, training and socialization. It constituted an obligatory educational circle; a type of ordeal for young persons in order to reach the level of adults (Cartledge, 2004, p.129). Jeanmaire (1913) in his article on the Krypteia of Lacedaemonians and in his book of Couroi et Couretes (1939) interpreting the agogi refers to the survival of ancient initiative ceremonies influenced from comparative ethnology. He speaks of the rites of passage, the tests. Everybody, however, underlines the obligatory public character of the agogi and the fact that it was common to everyone. (Levy 2008, p. 76). Agogi lasted from the age of seven to the age of eighteen. Children spent most of their time living a communal life, especially after the age of twelve, and their education was basically divided into three circles based on the childs physical age, namely paides (children), meirakia (youngsters) and epheboi (adolescents). Each cycle included specific ordeals and a specific training program of intellectual and physical exercises. The Agogi constituted a range of initiative and educational cycle of age-related groups and processes. It was meticulously organized, comprehensive and competitive. Moreover, it accomplished a double function of socialization and education (Cartledge, 2004, p. 195). Exercising the body formed the nucleus of agogi. Young Spartans took part in many contests whose main aim was to increase the sense of competition amongst them. Activities of Spartan education were mainly concentrated on body training. During these festivals, fights and dances took place, where contestants demonstrated their bodily strength, the harmony of their body and their velocity in running. Distinction in these fights, success and physical ability constituted basic elements of social classification. Agogi made use of these contests, games, fights and dance in order for knowledge to be checked and the best one to be selected. The whole education was characterized by a spirit of rivalry in which awards of honors and rewards to the feat of competitions held a significant place, thus limiting discriminations based on origin and wealth. Competitions and processional demonstrations of rites of passage, that determined the physical ability of youngsters, passed also down to agogi. These events included public inspections of the skillfulness of young Spartans during festivals. The results of agogi were evaluated along with the kinetic and physical abilities of boys and girls (Kyle, 2007, p. 183, Kennell, 1995, p. 65-69). Participation in these rituals guaranteed a mutual recognition of social placement and confirmed the integration in the community, defining the first form of political identity. Writing and reading, music, poetry, dance, athletic contests, attendance at feasts, as well as participation in activities that to a modern way of thinking seem strange and bizarre, such as, pederasty and ordeals like theft and the Krypteia. All those constituted the diverse fields of expression, acquisition and application of the knowledge gained as well as the means employed for their socialisation. The testimonies we possess, stress the citys efforts to teach young children how to co-exist with children of the same age, older children and adults as part of a whole, as well as to initiate new members into its culture. (Sakellariou†¦.). The duty of the State and its educational program was to create the perfect citizen who demonstrated a deep sense of political, military and social duty, bore weapons for the defence and the glory of his city, governed its affairs, complied with its rules and maintained its values and traditions. Spartan education thus shaped the model of the citizen-soldier (Birgalias 1999, p. 388, Ducat 2006, p. 168). In addition, compliance to the accepted models of behaviour became subject to constant control, which comprises the totality of rewards and sanctions (praise and disapproval) with which society regulates individual behaviour. (Gizeli, 1993, p.119, Nova Kaltsouni, 1998, p. 80-84). The fact, after all, that education in Sparta was intensively collective contributed to the socialization of children and to the growth of their personality, thus leading to a smooth future incorporation into the society. During their education young Spartans were obliged to participate in the religious feasts of their city. The significance of such feasts, which were organized by the state, was crucial to their upbringing. In most of them, where the entire city was present, children of both sexes participated (Ducat, 2006, p. 251). Processions, masks, competitions and contests constituted part of Spartan festivals. Athletic events, dance and music the moral aim of which is always associated to the tendencies of constitution, all these are the basic elements of feasts. (Birgalias, 1999, p. 185-187). Most significant festivals were those of Karneia, Yakintheia and Gymnopaidia. Karneia is a rite of obvious importance for the community, Primitive rural ritual. (Brelich, 1969, p. 148). Î’asic education included primarily reading, writing, maths and musical acts (music, poetry, singing and dancing). Contests and different sports constituted major part of the agogi. According to Ducat (2006) three were the elements of Spartan education for young persons, the process of rites of passage and education organized by the state, the courses that like in other cities were provided by schoolteachers and the prolonged exposure to social institutions as long as children were in touch with choosing and voting for the best. Another characteristic feature of this era was the constant competition promoted among youngsters. (Ducat, 2006, p. 333-339). Thus, the attitude and behaviour of Spartan children was constantly supervised by the Paidonomos, the Ephors, the elderly and the women (Ducat, 2006, p.162). The historian Plutarch (Lycurgus 14.5-6) mentions that in certain religious ceremonies, which were particularly popular as spectacles and in which all citizens of all social ranks participated, including the Kings and the Senate, young girls composed songs which praised or mocked the deeds of the boys. Such songs that formed part of a game were in fact as effective as admonition by the adults. In this case, girls were being employed as an educational means for the amelioration of the boys. Girls learnt to become strict judges so that the young Spartan boys were obliged to make an effort to improve themselves and earn the public praise of the girls (Ducat, 2006, p. 162, Kargakos, 2006, p. 551). Pederasty was also incorporated into the military, ritualistic and educational system of Spartan agogi. The adult lover, the eispnilas, was responsible for the behaviour, the values, the performance and the character of his young beloved, the aitas. The relationship developed between a child and an adult male was in fact contributed to the childs gradual integration into adult society (Kennell, 1995, p.125-126, Kargakos, 2006, p.551). Emphasis was placed, therefore, on the process of socialization via the association of children with the older members of the community, during which attendance at political discussions played an important role (Birgalias, 1999). All decisions governing Spartan adolescence tended to stress the distinction between adolescents and younger children, as a way of integration into adult life. Educational practices and events during festivals, such as the games at Platanistas or the ritual stealing of cheese from the altar of Artemis Orthia, were performed at this age. According to Isocrates, successful stealing was publicly declared in order to attract the praise and respect of the others. Stealing and Krypteia constituted in a way a game of hide and seek, an exercise teaching children how to live and survive alone depending merely on the powers of nature and exclusively on their physical and mental strength (Xenophon, Lak. Pol. 2.9, Kennell, 1995, p. 122-123, Birgalias, 1999, Ducat, 2006, p. 202-203, Hodkinson, 2004, p. 205).   Reporting on the legislators orders in preparation of the new Spartan citizen for war, Plato (Law 1.633 b.) underlines the importance of communal meals, gymnastics, hunting and ordeals of endurance such as wrestling and the ritual whipping on the altar of Artemis Orthia. The game of sphere, the games at Platanistas, the ritual stealing of cheese from the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia and the ritual whipping that later developed into the contest of karteria (endurance), were competitive games. The city of Sparta organised such public spectacles during which children and young men demonstrated their virtues and courage, and were accordingly evaluated (Ailianus, Poik.Hist. 14.7, Kennell, 1995, p. 65-69, Kyle, 2007, p.183). Apart from fighting, dance also played an important role in the education of young Spartans. Dance and ritual were interwoven and inextricably linked to all important Spartan rites of passage, namely the passages to puberty, adulthood and marriage. Practice in dance and song constituted the fundamental means of education and the maintenance of social institutions. The circle dance formed an indirect way for the foundation of the relationship between the citizen and the city, forming, as it did, a microcosm of the community. The circle creates unity, unifying members of a group with common characteristics (Papadopoulou, 2004). The chorostasio, the area where groups sharing common characteristics (sex, age, order) and common aims (invocation of the divine, celebration) performed dancing rituals, allowed individuals to observe and be observed, choose and be chosen. Consequently, dance and music functioned as social forces, especially in the context of religious ritual, and conveyed mess ages of uniformity and unity during public events. (Naerebout, 2004). No doubt, music and dance contests held central place in the most important Spartan festivals, more specifically the Karneia, Yakintheia and the Gymnopaidiai. In the Gymnopaidies, the social/educational role of dance is reflected on the simultaneous participation of individuals of different ages: children, adults and the elderly, all sang the works of famous poets (Athenaeus, 15.678 b-c). In Gymnopaidies children had a prominent role as long as the feast mainly included dancing (orchisi) of naked youngsters, where participants, with rhythmical movements, represented scenes of fight and pangratium. They practiced different gymnastic exercises and moved rhythmically their legs as if they were in the palaistra. (Athenaeus, 15,.678 b-c). They displayed a competitive character (Xenophon Ellinika 6.4 16). It is in these feasts where we can locate evidence of primitive rites of passage. The song contests during the festival of the Yakintheia had the character of initiation and aimed at the integration of young people into the adult community. During the second day of the Yakintheia various spectacles took place. A lavish feast was held in which children wearing tunics played stringed instruments and chanting hymns to the god, groups of young people sang traditional songs and dancers performed to the accompaniment of the pipe and sung hymns (Athenaeus 4.139 d-t). Agogi incorporated many elements of such initiative rites of passage moving further on adaptations of crucial importance in order to be functional within the frames of a political society.  ¶It converted premature inaugural rituals into a governmental system (Ducat, 2006, p. 181-188, Levy, 2008, p. 147-161). In these festivals the entire society participated, and this was a fact that strengthened social bonds. Young persons demonstrated their bodily kinetic abilities and were judged by the political body. These religious feasts incorporate and bring people into the heart of society. During these contests adolescents were grouped according to ancestral races and groups and took part in the competitions (Kennell, 1995, p. 51-52). Song and dancing contests also took place during the third largest Spartan festival, the Karneia (Euripides, Alkeste, 445-451). Scenes from the ceremonial ritual are depicted on a red-figured crater from the Spartan colony at Tarentum in southern Italy; dancers, bearing baskets on their heads, perform the kalathiskos dance next to a column inscribed with the word Karneios (Papadopoulou, 2004). For young persons who participated in the feast of Yakintheia this was equivalent to the passage from adolescence to the status of adult warrior. Processions, dance and fights were some of the activities carried out by youngsters who were taking part. The myth of Hyacinth might have been related to rites of outbreak in Sparta as many elements of initiative customs exist and this was considered as a festival of resumption of the world (Richer, 2004, p. 77-84). It was a compound complex religious ceremony. Nilsson (1912, 1955) tracks down an invocation of spring within the cheerful moment of celebration Brelich (1969) says that the contrast between joy and sorrow is marking a passage to a new era. The objective of Yakintheia was, maybe, the secure integration of young persons in society. Special mention should be made to the education of Spartan girls. The establishment of rites and contests for socialisation and the passage to womanhood were immensely important for both them and the Spartan State. Girls education took place in public and was not restricted to the house, nor were they excluded from the life of men (Birgalias, 1999, p.256, Ducat, 2006, p. 232-237). Spending a large part of their life in public would have helped them to fulfil their public role as good and responsible wives. (Ducat, 2006, p. 245, Cartledge, 2004, p. 640-641). State ceremonies, such as religious processions, festivals and competitions, promoted the participation of girls in public life and their equality to men. The education and training of Spartan women gained them Pan-Hellenic fame. With systematic physical exercise girls were trained to be fit, suffer the pangs of childbirth and give birth to strong healthy Spartan warriors. Xenophon (Lakedaimonion Politeia, 1.3-5) and Plutarch (Lycurgus, 14) inform us that in certain rituals accompanied by dance and song, women participated naked displaying their fitness, the ideal promoted by Spartan education (Kokkorou-Alevra, 2002, p. 131-133). Although athletic contests, (e.g. fighting, for girls and women) are testified elsewhere in Greece, those in Sparta constituted not only as part of religious ceremonies (as in the other Greek city-states) but more importantly they were incorporated into the educational system, which included girls from all social ranks. Various testimonies survive to the fitness of Spartan women: Alcmans Parthenia (11.58-9, 11. 45-9) gives a vivid account of the athletic contests; a bronze figurine dated to c. 500 BC (now in the British Museum) which depicts a young Spartan athlete or dancer is indicative of the freedom and the robustness of the girl; Pausanias (3.13.7) also mentions female contests during a festival in honour of Dionysus Kolonatas; Hysichius reports that women competed in racing (Ducat, 2006, p. 231). Similar reports can be found in Theocrituss Helens Epithalamios (11, 22-5) in which young girls participated in racing contests that took place near the baths of the River Eurotas. Plutarch suggests that exercise was an antidote to lethargy and adolescents were prepared for harmonious marriages because of the successful co-existence of boys and girls in the playground, a common training that inspired the Edgar Degas in his Spartan Girls Challenging Boys (c. 1860-1862, London National Gallery). Such training aimed to create women with a strong sense of responsibility and conscience. In no other Greek city-state were women so actively involved in public affairs, nor was their attendance in public assemblies so decisive. Spartan women, even though they werent official members of governmental and institutional bodies, took part in important decision-making acts, being allowed freedom of speech and able therefore to influence decision making. It follows, then, that they were not considered inferior to men. If the rites of passage were significant for a boy in order to become the ideal citizen-soldier, for girls such rites were important in order to make them good mothers and capable supervisors of their households. Marriage was for the girl what war was for a boy; both situations mark the perfection of their nature and the means of entry into a situation in which each one participates in the life of the others. (Vermant, 2003, p. 40-41). The participation of children in festivals was obligatory in ancient Sparta. Such occasions, in which elements of ancient rites of passage can be discerned, enhanced communal cohesion (Kitto, 2002, p. 278-280) with the establishment of public ceremonies incorporating adolescents into adult society, organised by the community and common for all young participants (Ducat, 2006, p.182). If any young individual failed in the ordeals, he/she was considered incompetent to become a full member of the community. During the rites of passage the young person refrained from communal life and had to fight to survive in the wild, guided by certain rituals and teachings. By incorporating certain elements of these archaic rites of passage into communal life, Spartan education succeeded in forming them into a strong political system. The innovative contribution of this article is the way the subject is approached by examining physical and kinetic activities and the role played by these elements, in the socialization of a young person.  ¶Living in an era of globalization and individualism, in a world lacking of exercise and of wise management of free time and, above all, in a period deprived of social coherence, it is Spartan agogi that teaches us the value of exercise and physical activities, the culture of the body, the opposition to materialism, the value of tradition and public feasts and its effectiveness in socialization and social cohesion Conclusion What this paper has set out to establish is that rites of passage, interwoven with kinetic activities, were incorporated into the agogi; the educational system of Sparta that played a pivotal role in the socialisation of youth. Sparta was a Greek city-state unique in the interrelationship between its educational system and its political, social and economic life, a system which conveyed and propagated a complete system of values that fully expressed Spartan society: education obligatory and uniform for all; both boys and girls; by not promoting me against us, learnt to define themselves as part of the whole rather than at an individualistic level, a way of upbringing and teaching inspired obedience, bravery, discipline and professional military ability.

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A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words If I were to take a room filled entirely with people and ask them to write about something that holds value to them, what would it be? To some, the word â€Å"value† means something that holds only a monetary value, something that can be bought and sold. The values that I am referring to are the values that an individual cannot place a price tag on. They are of special significance that hold a dear meaning to us deep down in our hearts. They are the things that are ever reminding us of the people that we are, and the people that we want to be. When I think of the word â€Å"value† I often think of love and family. I think about the importance of the gift of life, and just how very special it truly is. I also think of the times we share together, and how very precious they truly are. They are not material items that can be bought or sold; rather, they are foundations of who I am. Sometimes the non-material values we possess often run into the material things that we own. One of my most valued possessions would be my special photographs. They do not possess a monetary value, but rather, a great significance of memory to whoever possesses them. Photographs are like a moment frozen in time, individuals literally get to treasure that moment forever. Many times, cameras are the most important assets to people. Births, birthdays, baptism, first day of school, confirmation, vacation, graduation, weddings; they are just a few of the special events that people usually come all ready, equipped with a camera at hand. The reason? We all want to remember. We often rely on those pictures to remember those events completely and to be able to share them with other people. Growing up ... ...of the values that I hold close to me, but also, the values Ryan held close to himself. Ryan was not selfish, nor was he rude or conceded. He cared about everyone and everything. Ryan had so many friends, and he would have done anything for any one of them. He held family close, and lived each day as if it were his last. He was full of life, and he loved everything about living it. These pictures bring back all of those memories to me. They will never let me forget. They will never let me forget that huge, beautiful smile of his and that love of life, family and friends. These are now some of the greatest assets that I possess as a young woman. These are not values that anyone could ever place a price tag on, nor could anyone ever take them away from me, rather they are values that I will chose to live according to, and share with others along the way.

Critique of The Law of Apostasy in Islam Essay

In 1924 Samuel Zwemer wrote The Law of Apostasy in Islam as a response to several books and articles that claimed there is no punishment in Islam for apostate Muslims. Zwemer quotes Khwajah Kemal-ud-Din who wrote in his book India in the Balance, â€Å"in Islam there is no penalty for apostasy† and Mohammed Ali’s English translation of The Koran â€Å"neither here nor anywhere else in the Holy Koran is there even a hint of the infliction of capital or any other punishment on the apostate. † Zwemer disputes these claims and tries to prove his contention that there is a long history of punishing apostates throughout the Muslim world (Zwemer 8-9). Zwemer was a missionary for the Christian Dutch Reformed church in the Middle East during the latter part of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. The people he worked with and tried to convert to Christianity were Muslims. Zwemer begins his argument in the chapter â€Å"Why so Few Moslem Converts† by citing numerous cases where Muslims practiced punishment and ostracism against apostate Muslims, that is, Muslims who had converted to Christianity. The incidents described are anecdotal and deal with specific examples where apostate Muslims underwent punishment or discrimination at the hands of practicing Muslims. Assuming, for the sake of argument, Zwemer is correct and such practices occurred, Zwemer still does not disprove either of the statements quoted above. What Zwemer â€Å"proves† is that some Muslims were punished, nothing more. He has not proven the Koran supports such practices. The title of this chapter must give the reader pause; it does not seem to be the title of an intellectual argument, but more like a defense of his and other missionaries efforts while working among Muslims. Apparently he had concluded the reason for his lack of success was due to fear of punishment by other Muslims, not because he was a bad missionary, or because the tenets of Islam were more convincing to people in the region than the principles in Christianity (Zwemer 15-29). In the chapter two â€Å"The Law of Apostasy† Zwemer quotes three passages of the Koran that he claims indicate an official sanctioning of punishment of apostates. Zwemer is unconvincing. The phrase â€Å"take from them [apostate Muslims] neither patron or help (IV. 90, 91) and alleges that the standard commentary of Baidhawi, whoever that is, means â€Å"take and kill him wheresoever you find ye find him, like any other infidel (Zwemer 33). It appears Baidhawi has chosen an interpretation that is not justified from the original text. He treats the other passages in a similar fashion, interpreting them to mean apostates should be killed or punished, when a more straightforward interpretation does not imply his conclusion. Zwemer errs in at least two fashions. First he appears to equate evidence that indicates punishment has been administered against apostates indicates the sanction of such actions by the teaching of Islam. This is not the case. Throughout history there are far too many examples where common practices were either directly prohibited by official policies or were not addressed by these policies. This does not indicate official policies authorized such actions. Secondly, Zwemer’s evidence is largely either anecdotal or demand such contrived interpretations of the Koran as to unconvincing. Consequently The Law of Apostasy in Islam does not prove that punishment for apostate Muslims is a tenant of Islam. Works Cited Zwemer, Samuel M. The Law of Apostasy. London: Marshall Brothers Ltd, n. d.

What Do You Think About the View That There Are No Women in The Great Gatsby With Whom the Reader Can Sympathize?

Sympathy is defined as having feelings of sorrow for someone else’s misfortune. In a novel, sympathizing in a character allows the reader to relate to them. In Fitzgerald’s â€Å"The Great Gatsby†, there is no female character with whom we can sympathize. However, at various points within the novel we do offer our brief condolences to each character. Throughout the novel Daisy Buchanan appears enigmatic to the reader: why is she in a loveless relationship? Why did she leave Gatsby hanging on a thread? Many conclude that the ultimate chapters prove to us in many ways that she is incapable of loving. Shown by her choice to stay with Tom for his wealth and security; rather than choosing Gatsby, for she was â€Å"appalled by its raw vigour that chaffed†. She looks down on the vulgar nature of people that try and buy their way into the upper class as he has done. However, it is feasible to suggest that she chose Tom; after all he didn’t build his empire selling illegal alcohol like Gatsby. In addition, it is possible to argue that being in an unhappy marriage – shown by her reaction to Tom speaking to his mistress over dinner – is a liable reason to which we can feel empathy for her. Despite all of this, however, it is apparent throughout the novel that she is materialistic, promiscuous and immoral. As soon as Tom leaves she â€Å"kiss[es] him on the mouth† she is not only betraying Tom, but she acts â€Å"careless[ly]† with Gatsby’s emotions. He is a character in which the reader can sympathize – meaning she is hated. Ultimately, she chooses to run away with Tom, this is her last act that convinces we, as the reader, to deplore her. Jordan is an equally difficult character to whom we can sympathize; however, for different reasons. There is only really one instance in the novel that contrasts this view, and that’s when Jordan had â€Å"met another bad driver† in Nick. This does make her emotionally accessible to us; we can feel pity for her. However, this is overshadowed by her compulsive ability to lie. Apparently, she does not â€Å"give a damn† about the end of her and Nick’s relationship; an obvious lie, yet it implies that she will move on soon enough. We will never know if she actually met someone else during her and Nick’s meeting, yet it is unlikely, as she is a neurotic fabricator. Adding to this, we notice that Jordan is a highly destructive and careless character, rather like Daisy. She casually mentions to Nick that she â€Å"left a borrowed car out in the rain, and then lied about it† She is being careless with other peoples property, lying about it to ensure she is not affected by any repercussions†. It is apparent he that Jordan does not, as a whole, evoke sympathy with us. Myrtle does not draw any sympathy from the reader at a first glance. She is the lower-class mistress to Tom. She is a poor representation of the 1920’s woman as she carries â€Å"her surplus flesh sensuously†, meaning she is rather provocative, it is also the only compliment she receives in the book, inferring Tom’s only use for her is sex; not a particularly good role model for women. She is somewhat comparable to Daisy in that her only care is money and materialism, she wants to escape the upper class, and Tom is her refuge. Her â€Å"tremendous vitality† should aid her in this. However, we can sympathize with â€Å"Myrtle Wilson† when she fulfils her â€Å"tragic achievement†. This refers to her death, all she ever wanted to do was to escape her class and accomplish her American dream, but Nick morbidly realizes that the only way she ever would is through death. Much like Gatsby, her dream is forever doomed. Myrtle, in my opinion is a character with we can sympathize the most; her tragic story is rather like Gatsby’s. In that she had an unachievable, completely unattainable dream in her sight, but it was never to be – a doomed dream. I believe all the female characters in â€Å"The Great Gatsby† have characteristics that make us, as the reader to both love and despise them at the same time. Fitzgerald has portrayed them as merely humans with certain traits and bad decisions that moulds them into who they are. All three of these women are accessible to the reader, whilst at the same time completely detached and despised. I believe that the view in question is different for every reader, as they can make their informed opinion on each of these women. As for me, I do feel sympathy for them, but only to a certain extent.

Arthur Miller Essay

An important theme in Arthur Miller’s play â€Å"All My Sons† is the responsibility a man has for another man. Miller stressed that people must be held accountable for their actions to society and they will be held accountable by the inevitable justice found in the universe: karma. This theme is expressed through action as well as characters throughout the entire play; it is subtle at first but slowly becomes more prominent until Joe Keller finally realizes exactly how his actions affected people outside of his family. To begin, Keller’s character is important to the theme because he represents the opposite of being responsible for his actions and being held accountable to society. Joe Keller seems like a simple kind of man. His greatest wishes are to obtain the American dream for his wife and to create a legacy to pass on to his son. However, he harbors a dark secret that explains how he achieved those dreams for his family- he knowingly shipped out faulty airplane parts during wartime. Up until the time of the play, Keller did not believe he did a terrible thing by shipping those parts out. As he explains, when he came home from jail he was like an expert on the â€Å"whole jail thing† and, over time, the children â€Å"got it confused and†¦ [he] ended up a detective†(29). Or, more clearly, he went from being the bad guy to being the good guy. In Keller’s mind, he was the good guy because he saved his family from being poor and having their reputations in the gutter. He says to his wife, â€Å"you wanted money, so I made money†(76). To him, he simply did what he had to do to protect and take care of his family. At that point in his life he was not able to see the big picture of things; he was only able to see one little contour, just one small piece, of what makes up the universe. Furthermore, it is evident that Keller’s small piece of the universe, his family, is what is most important to him. Throughout the play he tells Chris that everything he has done with the business , including sending out cracked gear heads, was for Chris: â€Å"it was a chance and I took it for you†(70). Keller believed that he had to send out those parts so that he would still have a business to pass on to his son. Chris replies â€Å"what is that, the world- the business?†(70). He is asking his father if the whole world is the business. And the answer in Keller’s mind is, as long as it takes care of his family, yes it is the world. Slowly, though, Keller begins to see just what his actions have caused to happen to other people. Take, for example, when he speaks to Ann about her father, Steve. He finds out that Ann and George never visit Steve in jail and that they don’t even write to him. Keller is unable to understand why the children would â€Å"crucify† their father and he pleads with Ann to not â€Å"make a murderer out of him†(32). He realizes that Steve’s life was ruined and his relationships with his children, something that Keller gives very high value to, are ruined as well. It is also easy to believe that Keller doesn’t want to see Steve crucified because if he is, that means that Keller should be too. And if Keller was punished for his actions, that means there is â€Å"something bigger† in the world than the relationship between father and son. The whole ordeal with Steve and Steve’s children gives Keller a clue that there may be bigger things in the world than familial relationships and also that there may be consequences to wrongful actions. Finally, Chris and Larry (posthumously) work to enlighten Keller that â€Å"there’s a universe of people outside and that [he’s] responsible to it†(84). Chris’ character alone serves as a guidepost to this revelation. He is the epitome of the idea of responsibility and accountability to society because he is the person that reaches for something he wants but pulls â€Å"back because other people will suffer†(16). Chris takes other people’s feelings and well-being into account before he acts. He learned to be so self-less in the war, as he watched his men kill themselves for each other. He describes it as â€Å"a kind of†¦ responsibility. Man for man†(35-36). He learned that you cannot only look out for yourself in this world, but you have to help other people out as well. And Larry, whom Keller thought shared his ideas on the way the world was made (with a â€Å"forty-foot front†), had a good sense that people must consider the good of the many before they act for the few. It is his letter to Ann, in which he states he â€Å"can’t bear to live anymore†(83) because of what his father did, that brings everything crashing down around Keller. In the same way Larry’s memorial tree came crashing down and allowed more light to shine into the arbor, his letter shined light onto the true ways of the universe. Everything that Keller stood for, everything he believed in was wrong. He finally realized that he did a terrible thing that killed not only strangers, but people who were fathers, brothers, and sons. In essence, he killed the thing he lives for; he killed family. This revelation drives home the idea that justice will inevitably be brought to the wrong-doers. Keller’s karma comes back and makes him not only set everything right in the universe again but pay the ultimate price for his actions: death by his own hand. Chris, Ann, and Kate can now move forward, not bogged down by shame and guilt, and they can â€Å"live.†

Dialectic Journal for Catcher in the Rye Essay

Entry One Quote: â€Å"†¦ and all that David Copperfield kind of crap but I don’t feel like going through it if you want to know the truth†¦ my parents would have about two hemorrhages a piece it I tell anything pretty personal about them.† (Page 1) Response: This excerpt makes me very curious about his family members. The tone makes me believe that Holden probably is ashamed by them or he doesn’t like them when he describes them as â€Å"crap†. His parents’ attitude toward telling others personal stories is also confusing. It is not clear whether they are the ones inhibiting Holden from telling or not. I predict that Holden is reluctant when it comes to uncovering truths about his life. This quote is important because it gives me background information into Holden’s family life, as well as revealing a variety of characteristics of his personality. From this quote, I could tell that Holden does not have motivation to excel in school and he does not seem to care about getting kicked out. Being the teenager that he is, Holden does not realize the importance of education in his life, thus not caring about the severe consequences. Entry Two Quote: â€Å"He said he talked to Jesus all the time, even when he was driving his car. That killed me. I can just see the big phony bastard shifting into first gear and asking Jesus to send him more shifts.† (Page 17) Response: The quote made me really confused because I do not understand what Holden meant by shifting gear in this passage. However, now I understand that he does not like braggers and fakers. Also, Holden finds it irrational that these people dare to say they follow Jesus. I agree with him. If standing in a parking lot does not make you a car, then going to a church does not mean you are incredibly religious. This also seems to be one sign of Holden’s immaturity. It is very clear that when Holden starts to horse around, he puts an effort into annoying those surrounding him. Entry Three Quote: â€Å"I didn’t care about not seeing the movie anyway†¦ Besides, I’d been to the movies before with Auckly and Brossard.† (Page 37) Response: This quote seems ironic to me in ways more than one. Holden normally hates watching movies because he thinks that actors are fake and phony. He also does not like Auckly that much. In this section of the book, Holden does not seem glum and miserable as usual because he is acting like a regular teenager would. Holden’s invitation to Auckly proves that he is caring and sensitive to Auckly’s emotions. He also knows that loneliness is the worst situation so he helps Auckly out of it at least for one night. I also feel as if Holden really did care about seeing the movie because of the tone evolved in his voice. Entry Four Quote: â€Å"He got leukemia and died when we were up in Maine, on July 18, 1946. You’d have liked him. He was two years younger than I was, but he was about fifty times as intelligent. He was terrifically intelligent.† (Page 49) Response: This quote seemed very significant to me. It informed me that Holden had a younger brother named Allie who died from Leukemia. It is extremely clear that when Holden thinks about Allie, all he thinks about is how amazing of a person Allie was. I get the feeling that Holden is very fond of his siblings and has developed a fantastic relationship with them over time, making the death of Allie a major impact on his life. Also, the way Holden seems to be acting in this scene in the book tells me that he has strong feelings for Jane. The way he is talking about Stradlater has a connotation of evilness and mystery as to why he is afraid about Jane. Holden used to be close friends with Jane and he knows things about her that is worrying him about the intimate relationship she might form with Stradlater. Entry Five Quote: â€Å"I was right away sorry I’d said it, but it was too late.† (Page 75) Response: In my perspective, Holden tells these lies because he is used to it, but every time in the end he feels guilty. I think the fact that Holden feels bad about what he has done makes him a mature young man. He recognizes his mistakes and recognizes the horrid feeling of telling a lie. Many people in life have had moments where they have said something and regretted it immediately. This is the exact situation in which Holden was in. Holden had just had one of those relatable moments involving the guilt from saying something harsh and how it immediately affects him. However, he soon realizes that it is unfortunately too late to take back the words he had said. Entry Six Quote: â€Å"The fish-that’s different. The fish is different. I’m talking about the ducks.† (Page 82) Response: In this passage of the book, Holden is thinking scientifically. This supports the fact that he is smart after all, even though he his failing most of his classes. Often times, a teenager wants something so bad, they come up with crazy and somewhat stupid ideas and plans to help them obtain that something. Maybe this is because he does not want to try or maybe he wants to fit in with others who would not accept him if he was smart. In this metaphor, he is comparing himself the ducks in Central Park when the lagoon freezes over. What Holden is really saying is the fact that he would not know where to go if he stays living in a place full of phonies and rude people. The ducks cannot swim in ice and he will not stay in a school full of fakes. Entry Seven Quote: â€Å"She hasn’t felt too healthy since my brother Allie dies. She’s very nervous. That’s another reason why I hated like hell for her to know I got the ax again.† (Page 140) Response: This quote clearly explains how Holden is definitely not the only one who is affected by his brother, Allie’s, death. Holdens mother has gained severe health problems ever since Allie passed away. His mother is also very nervous, and I have come to conclusion that this is probably because she is afraid to lose another child of her own. However, not matter what her reason, Holden is concerned about his mother, and he feels saddened and guilty that his problems will affect her. This seems to be one of the real reasons as to why he does not want his parents, especially his mother, to know about him getting kicked out of school once again. I can relate to Holden in this situation in the fact that there is much pain and struggle that goes on within a family when a tragedy happens. Entry Eight Quote: â€Å"I kept putting my hand over my stomach and all to keep the blood from dripping all over. I didn’t want anybody to know I was wounded. I was concealing the fact that I was a wounded sunuvabitch.† (Page 150) Response: Back in the hotel when Holden caught himself into a fight and became the punching bag for the elevator guy, he pretended to be shot in the stomach. It is worth noting that Holden does the same thing now. I will infer that Holden may have seen this played out in a movie and such a scene became imprinted in his head. Also, this passage is extremely symbolic as to how Holden is feeling. It is very clean that Holden has a ton of issues that are depressing him but he is not showing that among others. I feel as though if Holden received help from a therapist or even a loved one he could excel in life and not have to live in such a tremendous lie anymore. In this depressed state, Holden is looking for much comfort. In some ways Holden proves he has much strength, but in other ways he proves he is a weak liar. Entry Nine Quote: â€Å"Then I took my hunting hat from my coat pocket and gave it to her.† (Page 180) Response: In this quote it is clear that Holden feels attached to it because he is able to recognize the connection he has with it. When he puts on the hat, he feels almost outside of himself and feels like there is someone that understands him. He understands himself even if no one else does. He feels safe when he wears it. The hunting hat is very symbolic to Holden. He wears it whenever he wants to feel protected and loved. It is probably the only object he cherishes. Giving that hat to Phoebe is a terrific example of being the catcher in the rye because he was to protect the children from the severity of life. Among those children, his favorite person is Phoebe, and this is why he chose the hand off the hunting hat to her. Entry Ten Quote: â€Å"but this damn article I started reading made me almost worst. It was all about hormones. It describes how you should look, your face and eyes and all, if your hormones were in good shape, and I didn’t look that way at all.† (Page 195) Response: Holden appears to be sad, lonely, and in desperate need of comforting. Unfortunately he decides to turn to alcohol for comfort. This clearly demonstrates how Holden behaves when dealing with certain issues as well as showing another immature side of him. Holden is originally skinny. He was supposed to be on a certain diet to help him gain weight, but he never eats enough. In fact, he rarely mentions food in his whole novel. His body is not receiving the essential nutrition in order for his body to function correctly, and consequently his hormones are not going to form completely. Many organs in his body will not work correctly, this includes his brain. This is scientifically why Holden will wind up in a mental hospital to seek help with his personal issues.